Neutrophil Granules Azurophilic (Primary) Granules These are lysosomes that occur in all granulocytes, as well as in lymphocytes and monocytes. In addition to expected lysosomal hydrolases, they also contain peroxidases (used to demonstrate azurophilic granules chemically). Develop earlier than specific granules. Stains blue/purple by Romanowsky stain. Mnemonic: ABCDE MnOP Acid hydrolase…
Category: PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS
Medical knowledge in bullet points with understandable language, simplified images and graspable mnemonics.
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Morphology of Granuloma
Concentric layers of Granuloma There are 4 concentric layers in a granuloma, however the clear distinction is difficult in reality due to overlapping. From inside to out: 1. Necrosis Caseating necrosis: Tuberculosis, Leprosy Coagulative necrosis: Buruli ulcer (M.ulcerans), Gumma containing central blood vessels (Syphilis) Fibrinoid necrosis: Aschoff bodies (Rheumatic granuloma),…
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Chemokines Mnemonics
Difference between cytokines and chemokines Cytokines are small proteins released by cells, the function of which is “cell-signaling“. Chemokines are small cytokines, which functions as a “chemo-attractant“. Types of Chemokines When you go through the structural classification of chemokines, you come accross various arrangements of letter: C: denotes cysteine X:…
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Tissue Specific and Named Macrophages
Subtle differences in the morphology and functions of macrophages develop as a result of the influence of a particular microenvironment. Appearance of macrophages to histologists have been described as a kind of mythological Proteus, “a creature who had the power of changing his appearance at will”. The life-span of these fixed…
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Simple Coagulation Cascade with Mnemonics
In medical school, coagulation cascade might be a pain to learn and teach as well. Plenty of roman numerals with arrows going here and there – is this the reason you hate coagulation cascade? I will pretty much try to simplify the whole thing with essential clinical correlation here. I…
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Difference between Sarcoidosis and Tuberculosis
Sarcoidosis and tuberculosis are both granulomatous disease with similar constitutional symptoms, respiratory symptoms and multiple organ involvement with hilar and mediastinal lymph node involvement. Hence, the diagnosis of one from the other may pose significant difficulties. Sarcoidosis vs Tuberculosis (TB) IFN-gamma release assays (IGRA)Tuberculosis can be reliably excluded if both…
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Apoptosis (Caspases and Genes) : Mnemonics
Caspases (Pro-apoptotics) Initiator caspases: Executioner caspases: 3 and 7 Pro-apoptotic genes Mnemonic: “B” followed by a vowel Anti-apoptotic genes Mnemonic: Contains “L” or “XL” Other: Inhibitor of Apoptosis (XIAP) How all these genes and molecules work together to complete apoptosis? Find it here.
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Opioid Receptors Mnemonic
Opioid receptors are a group of inhibitory G protein-coupled receptors with opioids as ligands. Mu (µ) Receptor (MOP) Mnemonic: MU CARDS Miosis eUphoria Constipation Analgesia (Supraspinal + Spinal) Respiratory depression Rigidity (truncal) Dependency Sedation µ1 mediates supraspinal analgesia, and most of other effects including spinal analgesia is mediated by µ2. Kappa…