Hilum in human anatomy refers to the depression where structures such as blood vessels and nerves enter an organ. The structures contributing to hilar shadows in a Chest X-ray are: Major: Pulmonary artery and veins Minor: Fat, Lymph nodes and Bronchial walls Normal Hilum: Position: Left hilum is slightly higher…
Category: PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS
Medical knowledge in bullet points with understandable language, simplified images and graspable mnemonics.
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Chest X-ray – Pleural Effusion
Pleura is a mesothelial lined sac that envelopes the lungs and comprises of 2 membranous walls i.e. visceral pleura and parietal pleura that encloses pleural space filled with pleural fluid. Pleural space contains about 0.3 ml/kg body weight of pleural fluid. The pleura is not visible on a normal CXR…
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Chest X-ray: Alveolar vs Interstitial Disease
Interstitium is the scaffolding that supports the alveolar walls and surrounds both the alveoli and the terminal bronchioles. Neither alveoli nor interstitium is visible on a chest X-ray when normal. It is necessary to analyze whether the pattern of diffuse opacification in the lung field is alveolar or interstitial. Terms:…
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Systematic Approach to Frontal Chest X-ray
To make an appropriate diagnosis through a chest radiograph, it must be analyzed in a systematic manner. One of the common mistakes that students do is to miss the regions that needs to be looked for – commonest being the rib fractures. A mnemonic has been devised for this purpose:…
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Strawberry Gallbladder (Cholesterolosis)
Synonyms: Strawberry gallbladder is also known as hyperplastic cholecystoses. Hyperplastic cholecystoses are a spectrum of non-neoplastic proliferative disorders caused by deposition of cholesterol-laden macrophages within the wall of the gall bladder. The cholecystose range from abnormalities of the gallbladder wall (adenomyomatosis and strawberry gall bladder) to gallbladder polyps extending into…
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Cutaneous manifestation in thyroid disorders
Skin – Systemic Disease Connection “When a man has on the skin of his body a swelling or an eruption… and the disease appears to be deeper than the skin it is a leprous disease.” – Leviticus 13: 2-3 In ancient times changes in skin were taken to indicate the…
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Hemoptysis – Examination and Evaluation
Synonym: Haemoptysis Definition of Hemoptysis Simple definition: Expectoration of blood or bloody sputum Hemoptysis is defined as the expectoration of blood from the respiratory tract, a spectrum that varies from blood-streaking of sputum to coughing up large amounts of pure blood. True hemoptysis is expectoration of blood from the lower respiratory tree, below…
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Respiratory Examination – Relevant Anatomy and Physiology
1. Division of Airway: Extrathoracic (Upper) airway: Nose to Upper trachea Intrathoracic (Lower) airway: Lower trachea to Alveoli and lungs Note: Vocal fold is also regarded as the demarcating line between upper and lower respiratory tract 2. Angle of Louis: Junction of body of sternum to manubrium (2nd costal cartilage…