General concepts of ETC and Oxidative Phosphorylation: 1. Occurs in cell cytosol: Glycolysis 2. Occurs in mytochondrial matrix: Kreb’s (TCA) cycle 3. Occurs in mitochondrial inner membrane: ETC – Stepwise movement of electrons from high energy to low energy that activates proton pump which transports proton from the mitochondrial matrix to mitochondrial inter-membrane and…
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis: Mnemonics
It is not necessary to memorize each and every step of the process. We will only look into the major events. A. Meaning: Glyco (Sugar) + Lysis (Breaking or splitting) B. Synonyms: Embden-Meyerhof Pathway (EM Pathway) C. Site: Cytoplasm D. Enzyme basics: Kinase: Adds or removes phosphate from substrate (uses…
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Kreb’s cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) : Mnemonic
Mnemonic: Our City Is Kept Safe And Sound From Malice Remember the enzymes of the cycle: All the enzymes are in the matrix of mitochondria except succinate dehydrogenase which is in inner mitochondrial membrane. Pyruvate from aerobic glycolysis enters mitochondria, where it may be converted into acetyl-CoA (irreversible reaction) under…
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Medial Medullary (Dejerine’s) Syndrome : Anatomical basis mnemonic
As already discussed in the previous section about Lateral Medullary (Wallenberg) Syndrome: 6 “S” pass/lie on the Side (latetral) of Medulla Except the anteromedian part supplied by vertebral artery, rest of the medulla is supplied by PICA Let us now review the relevant anatomy and physiology of the medial portion…
Clinical Skills and Approaches 
Pronator Drift (Barre’s sign) : Neurological Examination
Components of pronator drift Progress from distal to proximal: Downward arm drift Forearm pronation Flexion of the wrist and elbow Method of assessment for pronator drift When the patient extends both arms upright in the supinated position and hold them at shoulder height for atleast 10 seconds (Patients should be…
PGMEE, MRCS, USMLE, MBBS, MD/MS 
Anatomical basis of Wallenberg (Lateral Medullary) Syndrome : Mnemonic
Before proceeding into the disease itself, let’s review – relevant anatomy of the medulla with a simple mnemonic. The Side (lateral) part of Medulla contains 6 “S“ 1. Spinocerebellar tract Posterior spinocerebellar tract: Ascends and enters to ipsilateral cerebellum via ipsilateral inferior cerebellar peduncle Anterior spinocerebellar tract: Ascends and enters…
Case Reports 
Craniopharyngioma – Case Discussion
Case Summary A 38 year old female came with: Headache for 6 months Diminution of peripheral vision bilatetrally Irregular menstrual cycle for the last 1 year Now, polydypsia and excessive urination Her prolactin level was 115.6 ng/ml (increased), FSH was 1.3 mIU/ml (decreased) and LH was 0.242 mIU/ml (decreased). CT…
Clinical Skills and Approaches 
Clonus : Clinical Examination and Mechanism
Definition of clonus Clonus is a rhythmic sustained involuntary muscular contraction (generally 5-8 Hz) evoked by sudden passive stretch of the muscle and tendon. Eliciting Clonus Clonus is commonly elicited in gastrocnemius (ankle clonus). Other sites where clonus can be elicited are quadriceps (patellar clonus), finger flexors and jaw. 1….